During the  early Ming period, a relatively high degree of  control was imposed on  political and cultural development.   For eg. during the reign of HongWu, a decree was issued in the year 1371 which forbid certain subjects such as previous emperors, queens, sages or saints, dragon, phoenix, lion and chilin  on porcelains.  Another instance was the  decree  issued in the year 1447 by emperor Zheng Tong which prohibited the production of color glaze such as yellow, purple, red or blue glazes including those with underglazed blue design.

That has a significant impact on the decoration  found on folk kiln blue and white wares of the period.  Only a narrow range of motifs were available.  Usually the motifs are simplified and executed in calligraphic style.  This may be due to economic consideration, ie it facilitates quick completion and increases production. The execution of  lines is spontaneous and highly rhythmic.  This carefree style without depiction of details has a charm and character of its own.

Recent information seems to indicate that folk kiln blue and white might have been produced later than Hongwu or even Yongle.  For more discussion, please read : Early Ming Folk kiln blue and white revisit.

The typical designs that could be found during early ming period are interlacing floral scroll with sanksrit character , clouds, 3 friends of  winter (represented by pine, plum and bamboo), ornamental balls with silk knots and the characters fu (fortune) and shou (longevity)  as the main motifs,  rolling clouds with human figures which resemble dreamland, hermit in countryside setting.   The influence of Tibetan Buddhism is shown in elements such as sanskrit/tibetant characters and buddhist 8 precious objects (conch shell, wheel, umbrella, canopy, lotus, vase, fish, endless knot).  

Majority of the wares produced during the Early Ming period are  functional in nature, such as bowl, plate, covered jar and incense burner.  Vases only constituted a small amount of the production.

The pioneering project on identification of early Ming blue and white, especially separating those Pre Xuande from those from Post-xuande to Pre-Chenghua (the duration of 29 years spanning 1436 to 1465  is now  termed the Interegnum period) was carried out by Wang Zhimin of Nanjing museum in 1964.  He collected tens of thousands ceramic shards from the Yudai river where the old Nanjing palace was located.  Based on stylistic comparison, he was able to form some meaning deduction of characteristics found on pieces belonging to each dynastic Ming period.    To a  significant extend, his findings was a big step forward for the study of Ming folk kilns blue and white.  His findings were used  to verify artifacts excavated at Li shu tan in Yaoli outside Jingdezhen.  However, according to Ouyang Shibin of the Jingdezhen Ceramics Institute of China, in his article " A study of Ceramics Made at Jingdezhen Commericial kilns during the 15th century", the study of artifacts found in the stratified layers at Li shu tan allows them to establish the internal development of vessels produced but do not enable absolute dating for each layer.

Undeniably the comparison method has its merits.  It enables the establishment of a general chronological order in the development of different  styles.  But its shortcoming is the difficulty in determining the  end-date for a particular style of motif.    It is not unjustifiable to assume  a transitional phase during which an old style and an emerging new style co-existed.  The old style will ultimately be abandoned but the difficulties is to determine the end point.  For example, plates with motif of lion and chilin, executed in calligraphic manner, were also usually attributed to the interregnum period.    The Lena shoal junk  (found near the Lena Shoal found Busuanga Island in the Philippines in 1997) well preserved cargo of typically Hongzhi blue and white wares have however sprung up a few surprises and further confirmed the difficulty of dating accurately early Ming blue and white.  There were a number of chilin plates and some bowls with abstract cloud and floral motifs executed calligraphic style usually attributed to Early Ming period.  In a Guangdong Dongguan  family graveyard of Zhong Songxue, a group of jars, a floral bowl and a plate with lion motif were excavated.   The earliest burial was in second year of Zhengde .  Five jars with typical Hongzhi style scholar in garden setting were found.  in the adjacent  burial site of one of Zhong Songxue's son, two big late Zhengde/early Jiajing jars, one with floral and the other with fish motif were recovered.  Also found together was a lion plate and a bowl executed in interregnum period calligraphic style.  Based on the Dongguan chronicle,  one of Zhong Songxue's sons died in the 7th year of Jiajing.  

So far, based on the published information that I have, no piece of plate with lion or chilin motif were among the interregnum period blue and white artifacts excavated from datable tombs.   Hence, whether it shows the persistence of the style or that they were indeed produced after the interrugnum period will require more information to confirm.

During the he interregnum period  there were numerous laws pronounced restricting or banning production of blue and white wares.   Coupled with a declining tribute system of trade and ban on illegal private trade, the amount of porcelain that reach the overseas market would have been adversely affected.   Hence, it is puzzling why a significant volume of blue and white usually attributed to the  interregnum period  were excavated in Southeast Asia.  The lena cargo might be an indication that those were produced later most probably during the Chenghua  to Hongzhi period instead.  

Almost all the known folk kiln sites in Jingdezhen region were badly disturbed and destroyed.  Hence, scientific excavation is almost impossible.   Currently, a good source from dating is artifacts recovered from datable tombs.  Regrettably, the information is limited and not widely circulated.  Such  research information together with those from shipwrecks will enable more detailed studies and  throw light on when a style start/end point of a particular and identify the gradual characteristic changes as the style involved.  It is a worthwhile project and but it would require patience and co-operation from different sources to build up a comprehensive database.  

 

Interregnum bowl with scene with pavilion and rowing clouds	Jiajing jar with floral scrolls and taoist 8 diagrams

Mid Ming Period (Chenghua to Zhengde, 1465 to 1521)

By the Mid Ming period ,  production and demands for porcelain increased considerably due to demand from illegal private trade.   Officially the tribute system of foreign trade implemented since Hongwu period only came to an end in 1567 (Jiajing) with the opening of Yuegang  in Fujian for legal foreign trade.   The tribute system of trade reached its peak during the Yongle/Xuande period epitomised by  Admiral Zhenghe's trips on large fleet of treasure ships which reached as far as East coast of Africa.  The tribute system of trade declined due to internal problem such as the capture of Zhengtong emperor by the Mongols and official corruption.   To meet overseas demand, illegal foreign trade became gradually more common.  By the Chenghua period, the 3 coastal province of  Zhejiang, Fujian and Guongdong had flourishing private trade.   Such illicit arrangement involved powerful rich families and facilitated by tacit assistance of  corrupt provincial officials.

The pigmented-wash method of decoration which was experimented most probably during the Tianshun period gained greater popularity and used on bulk of the blue and white wares from late Chenghua onward.  Generally you can distinguish two tonal blue  in the wash area   Many however utilised a combination of calligraphic and pigmented-wash method to execute the motif.   The full calligraphic style and those with motif completely cover with pigment wash constitute a smaller portion of the production.  

The lena cargo is a very interesting and important find.   The varied style of motif indicated that  Hongzhi is a watershed period.  There are pieces which shows typical interrugnum style, majority which are positively identified with the Chenghua/Hongzhi period and some shows, such as those floral scrolls with buddhist precious object and lingzhi fungus scrolls, the emerging elements  typical of Jiajing period.

During the Zhengde period, a number of blue and white porcelains with Islamic designs were produced.  Some speculated that it was said because emperor Zhengde was converted to Muslim faith.  However, the more probable  reason could be the influence of the powerful eunuchs , many of whom were muslims. 

This Mid Ming period also witnessed a change in the motif composition.   Many bowls and plates have the inner area more densely and fully decorated.  This is a rather unique phase as those before and after this period generally  have more sparsely decorated inner area.

Mark  such as "FU" , "Da Ming Nianzhao", "Tian" and "Tai ping" , on the outer base also appeared in wares in during Chenghua/Hongzhi  period.  Increasingly, more types of auspicious marks was introduced especially  from Jiajing period onward.

Late Ming Period (Jiajing to Chongzhen, 1522 to 1644)

Jiajing period heralded the full implementation of the Guan da min shao system, which imperial porcelain production was contracted out to private kiln operators.  The high quality requirement forced the potters to improve quality of their products.  The penalty for failure to meet quantity and quality requirements was stiff.  Besides paying a fine, they had ot buy in pieces from the officials to meet any shortfall in government order.  

The Portuguese  maritime explorers also made their way to China around 1514.   The high quality of the chinese porcelains generated intense interest  and demand in elite class of the society in Europe and the wares became a form of status symbols.   A unique form of wares termed the kraak wares made to meet the specifications  of Eurpean clients were produced.   Kraak derived from "carrack", a type of  Portuguese ship captured by the Dutch in 1603 inside which carried a large quantities of these wares  found)  were produced.   The typical Kraak ware has a central theme on the inside of a bowl or plate with panels of medallions on the side walls.  The walls of the bowls and plates are generally thin.   One common defect of the kraak wares is flaking of the glaze along the rim.  The Japanese called it mushikui, ie. "insect nibbles".

Emperor Jiajing who succeeded Zhengde was a devout Taoist.   Taoist symbolism became a common decorative elements during the late Ming period.   Taoist motifs such as the Eight immortals, eight Taoist Emblems, the Pakua (eight diagrams) , the cranes, auspicious character shou (often formed by twisted peach tree as above picture) were frequently used .  

A unique feature for Jiajing/wanli period is the use of Hui qing, a form of imported cobalt which is purplish in colour tone.  Hui qing needs to be mixed with local cobalt as too high an amount of it will conceal the details of the lines under the wash.  A well proportioned mixture of hui-qing and local cobalt will create a brilliant clear purplish motif.  From  Jiajing onward, the outline and wash method became the mainstream style of decoration.  The outline is thin and of even thickness, which the Chinese calls iron thread.  The good quality pieces also have clear even one tone wash.  

The Jiajing period also saw the emergence of blue and white wares manufactured in Zhangzhou region.  This category of wares was termed swatow wares in the past.  For a more detailed discuss, please view the article: A general survey of Zhangzhou (swatow) wares.

Durng the Chongzhen period, a type of porcelain, commonly called transitional wares ware produced.  One common feature of these wares is their thick construction.  The quality of the procelain is comparable to those found on imperial wares.  The glaze is excellent coupled with high standard of painting.  The subjects covered  are varied, including flowers, landscapes, scenes taken from chinese plays (see below).  Many of the pieces also incorporate supplementary foreign decoration, such as the tulip.    Also commonly found is a band of underglazed engraved pattern near the rim of the ware such as incense burners, brush pots, and sleeve vases.  The fish scale-like representation of grasses, the curling shaded clouds and the shaded with varied tones mountains/stones (See sample) were also not found in period earlier than Tianqi.
 
 
 

A typical late Jiajing/early wanli bowl with outline and wash floral  motif	Tianqi bowl which shown the initial phase of shading of the rock which became a typical feature on Qing Kangxi pieces.

By NK Koh (Revised on 25 Sep 2008)